Nuclear hormone receptors comprise a class of intracellular, mostly ligand-regulated transcription factors, which include receptors for thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormones exert profound effects on growth, development and homeostasis in mammals. They regulate important genes in intestinal, skeletal and cardiac muscles, liver and the central nervous system, and influence the overall metabolic rate, cholesterol and triglyceride levels, heart rate, and affect mood and overall sense of well being.
There are two major subtypes of the thyroid hormone receptor, TRα and TRβ, expressed from two different genes. Differential RNA processing results in the formation of at least two isoforms from each gene. The TRα1, TRβ1 and TRβ2 isoforms bind thyroid hormone and act as ligand-regulated transcription factors. The TRα2 isoform is prevalent in the pituitary and other parts of the central nervous system, does not bind thyroid hormones, and acts in many contexts as a transcriptional repressor. In adults, the TRβ1 isoform is the most prevalent form in most tissues, especially in the liver and muscle. The TRα1 isoform is also widely distributed, although its levels are generally lower than those of the TRPβ1 isoform. A growing body of data suggest that many or most effects of thyroid hormones on the heart, and in particular on the heart rate and rhythm, are mediated through the TRα1 isoform, whereas most actions of the hormones on the liver, muscle and other tissues are mediated more through the β-forms of the receptor. It is believed that the α-isoform of the receptor is the major influence on heart rate for the following reasons: (i) tachycardia is very common in the syndrome of generalized resistance to thyroid hormone in which there are defective TRβ-isoforms, and consequently high circulating levels of T4 and T3; (ii) Tachycardia was observed in the only described patient with a double deletion of the TRβ gene (Talceda et al, J. Clin. Endrocrinol. & Metab. 1992, 74, 49); (iii) a double knockout TRα gene (but not β-gene) in mice showed bradycardia and lengthening of action potential compared to control mice (Functions of Thyroid Hormone Receptors in Mice: D. Forrest and B. Vennström, Thyroid, 2000, 10, 41-52); (iv) western blot analysis of human myocardial TRs show presence of the TRα1, TRα2 and TRβ2 proteins, but not TRβ1.
If the indications above are correct, an a-selective thyroid hormone receptor antagonist that interacts selectively with the heart would offer an attractive alternative treatment of heart related disorders, such as atrial and ventricular arrhythmias.
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common type of sustained arrhythmia encountered in primary care practice and is significantly more common in elderly patients, thus reflecting a reduction in the threshold for AF with age. Pharmacological treatment of AF involves the following types of anti-arrhythmic drugs according to Vaughan-Williams classification: (i) of class I such as disopyramide and flecainide (sodium channel blockers); (ii) of class III such as amiodarone (potassium channel blocker, prolongation of repolarization); (iii) of class IV such as verapamil and dilitazem (calcium channel blockers). Many patients are also subjected to electric cardioversions in order to convert atrial fibrillation into sinus rhythm. It should be noted that current therapies are associated with pro-arrhythmic risks and anti-arrhythmic agents often have insufficient efficacy partly because effective doses are limited by side-effects.
Ventricular arrhythmia, especially sustained ventricular tachycardia (VT) and ventricular fibrillation (VF), is the main cause of death associated with heart attack. Historically, three types of antiarrhythmic agents, class I agents, β-adrenergic blockers (class II), amiodarone and sotalol, appeared to offer the best scope for mortality reduction in patients with cardiac disease by preventing the occurrence of VT/VF.
The outcome of CAST (Cardiac Arrhythmia Supression Trial, N. Engl. J. Med., 321 (1989) 406-412) and its successor SWORD (Survival With Oral D-sotatol trial, 1994) created much concern regarding the potential of class I agents and sotalol. It was found that class I agents did not decrease mortalities in patient groups at risk for sudden cardiac death. For some subsets of patients, class I agents even proved to increase mortality. The SWORD trial was stopped when sotalol proved to be associated with higher death rate in patients, than the placebo. A consequence of these results is that the use of implantable defibrillators and surgical ablation have increased and that the trend in the industry has been towards the development of highly specific class III agents. Some of these channel blockers have been withdrawn from clinical development due to proarrhythmic effects and the subject remains under intensive debate. In this context it should be noted that amiodarone, despite its complex pharmacokinetics, mode of action (amiodarone is not regarded as a pure class III agent) and numerous side effects, is currently considered by many to be the most effective agent in the control of both atrial and ventricular arrhythmia.
Thyrotoxicosis is the clinical syndrome that results when tissues are exposed to elevated levels of circulating thyroid hormones, thyroxine (3,5,3′,5′-tetraiodo-L-thyronine, or T4) and triiodothyronine (3,5,3′-triiodo-L-thyronine, or T3). Clinically, this state often manifests itself in weight loss, hypermetabolism, lowering of serum LDL levels, cardiac arrhythmia, heart failure, muscle weakness, bone loss in postmenopausal women, and anxiety. In most instances, thyrotoxicosis is due to hyperthyroidism, a term reserved for disorders characterized by overproduction of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland. The ideal treatment of hyperthyroidism would be the elimination of its cause. This is however not possible in the more common diseases producing thyroid hypersecretion. At present, treatment of hyperthyroidism is directed to reducing overproduction of thyroid hormones by inhibiting their synthesis or release, or by ablating thyroid tissue with surgery or radioiodine.
Drugs inhibiting thyroid hormone synthesis, release, or peripheral conversion of T4 to T3 include antithyroid drugs (thionamides), iodide, iodinated contrast agents, potassium perchlorate and glucocorticoids. The main action of antithyroid drugs such as methimazole (MMI), carbimazole, and propylthiouracil (PTU), is to inhibit the organification of iodide and coupling of iodotyrosines, thus blocking the synthesis of thyroid hormones. As they neither inhibit iodide transport nor block the release of stored thyroid hormones, control of hyperthyroidism is not immediate and in most cases requires 2 to 6 weeks. Factors that determine the speed of restoration of euthyroidism include disease activity, initial levels of circulating thyroid hormones, and intrathyroidal hormone stores. Serious side effects are not common with antithyroid drugs. Agranulocytosis is the most feared problem and has been observed with both MMI or PTU treatment. Elderly persons may be more susceptible to this side effect, but agranulocytosis can occur in younger age groups, although less frequently. Inorganic iodide given in pharmacological doses (as Lugol's solution or as saturated solution of potassium iodide, SSKI) decreases its own transport into the thyroid, thus inhibiting iodide organification (the Wolff-Chaikoff effect), and rapidly blocks the release of T4 and T3 from the gland. However, after a few days or weeks, its antithyroid action is lost, and thyrotoxicosis recurs or may worsen. Short-term iodide therapy is used to prepare patients for surgery, usually in combination with a thionamide drug. Iodide is also used in the management of severe thyrotoxicosis (thyroid storm), because of its ability to inhibit thyroid hormone release acutely. Perchlorate interferes with accumulation of iodide by the thyroid. Gastric irritation and toxic reactions limit the long-term use of perchlorate in the management of hyperthyroidism. Glucocorticoids in high doses inhibit the peripheral conversion of T4 to T3. In Graves' hyperthyroidism, glucocorticoids appear to decrease T4 secretion by the thyroid, but the efficiency and duration of this effect is unknown. The aim of surgical treatment or radioiodine therapy of hyperthyroidism is to reduce the excessive secretion of thyroid hormones by removal or destruction of thyroid tissue. Subtotal or near-total thyroidectomy is performed in Graves' disease and toxic multinodular goiter. Restoration of euthyroidism before surgery is mandatory. The classical approach combines a course of thionamide treatment to restore and maintain euthyroidism, and the preoperative administration of iodide for approximately 10 days in order to induce involution of the gland. Propranolol and other beta-adrenergic antagonist drugs are useful in controlling tachycardia and other symptoms of sympathetic activation.
A high affinity ThR antagonist would in principle have the ability to restore euthyrodism quicker than any of the above agents, considered that its action is competitive for the ThR receptor. Such an agent could be used either alone or in combination with the above drugs, or alternatively before an ablative treatment. It may also serve as a safer substitute for antithyroid drugs, especially in elderly patients at a high risk of agranulocytosis. Furthermore, hyperthyrodism can aggravate pre-existing heart disease and also lead to atrial fibrillation (AF), congestive heart failure, or worsening of angina pectoris. In the elderly patient, often with mild but prolonged elevation of plasma thyroid hormones, symptoms and signs of heart failure and complicating AF may dominate the clinical picture and mask the more classical endocrine manifestations of the disease.